Al-?d?b al-Mard?iyya: Celebrating Shaykh-Veneration in 18th-Century Moroccan Reforms

Abstract

The 18th century witnessed significant religious revivals and reforms throughout the Islamic world, including Morocco. While both s?f? and non-s?f? reformist movements advocated a return to foundational Islamic principles, often through purist-orientated approaches that rejected popular S?f? practices, the Darq?w? S?f? order took a distinct path. Formed by al-Arab? al-Darq?w? (d. 1239/1823) as a sub-branch of the Sh?dhil? order, Darq?wiyya was characterized by a revival of ascetism and popular S?f? practices, such as self-striving, seclusion, begging, and dhikr gatherings, and aligned them with shari?a principles. Above all, the teachings of Darq?wiyya revolved around the reverence (ta???m) and veneration (?urmah) of S?f? shaykhs and emphasized their central role as intermediaries between the Prophet and disciples. However, these S?f? practices and emphasis on shaykhs faced condemnation from the Moroccan ruler, Mawl?y Sulaym?n (r. 1792 to 1822) who favoured the Wahh?b? teachings, despite not fully embracing its doctrines. In quest of exercising control over the z?wiyas, he targeted their religious legitimacy and restricted their S?f? activities, including those of the Darq?wiyya. In this context, Al-?d?b al-Mar?iyya li-s?liki ?ar?q al-??fiyya, a S?f? manual written by the Shadhil?-Darq?w? shaykh Mu?ammad bin A?mad al-B?z?d? (d. 1229/1814), serves as both an apology and a S?f? manifesto. Written in the ?d?b al-mur?d (S?f? etiquette) genre, this text acted not only as a guide for Darq?wiyya disciples but also as a proclamation of the central role of S?f? shaykhs, as well as it sought to legitimize the criticized S?f? practices of the order. This article studies the unique conventional position of the Darq?wiyya Order during the late 18th century Moroccan reforms and present al-?d?b al-mar?iyya as a significant text defending the reverence and veneration of S?f? shaykhs, as well as their practices during this period.